Arianism

Arianism

A heresy which arose in the fourth century, and denied the Divinity of Jesus Christ.

DOCTRINE

First among the doctrinal disputes which troubled Christians after Constantine had
recognized the Church in A.D. 313, and the parent of many more during some
three centuries, Arianism occupies a large place in ecclesiastical history. It is not a
modern form of unbelief, and therefore will appear strange in modern eyes. But we
shall better grasp its meaning if we term it an Eastern attempt to rationalize the
creed by stripping it of mystery so far as the relation of Christ to God was
concerned. In the New Testament and in Church teaching Jesus of Nazareth
appears as the Son of God. This name He took to Himself (Matt., xi, 27; John, x,
36), while the Fourth Gospel declares Him to be the Word (Logos), Who in the
beginning was with God and was God, by Whom all things were made. A similar
doctrine is laid down by St. Paul, in his undoubtedly genuine Epistles to the
Ephesians, Colossians, and Philippians. It is reiterated in the Letters of Ignatius, and
accounts for Pliny's observation that Christians in their assemblies chanted a hymn
to Christ as God. But the question how the Son was related to the Father (Himself
acknowledged on all hands to be the one Supreme Deity), gave rise, between the
years A. D. 60 and 200, to number of Theosophic systems, called generally
Gnosticism, and having for their authors Basilides, Valentinus, Tatian, and other
Greek speculators. Though all of these visited Rome, they had no following in the
West, which remained free from controversies of an abstract nature, and was
faithful to the creed of its baptism. Intellectual centers were chiefly Alexandria and
Antioch, Egyptian or Syrian, and speculation was carried on in Greek. The Roman
Church held steadfastly by tradition. Under these circumstances, when Gnostic
schools had passed away with their "conjugations" of Divine powers, and
"emanations" from the Supreme unknowable God (the "Deep" and the "Silence")
all speculation was thrown into the form of an inquiry touching the "likeness" of the
Son to His Father and "sameness" of His Essence. Catholics had always maintained
that Christ was truly the Son, and truly God. They worshipped Him with divine
honors; they would never consent to separate Him, in idea or reality, from the
Father, Whose Word, Reason, Mind, He was, and in Whose Heart He abode from
eternity. But the technical terms of doctrine were not fully defined; and even in
Greek words like essence (ousia), substance (hypostasis), nature (physics), person
(hyposopon) bore a variety of meanings drawn from the pre-Christian sects of
philosophers, which could not but entail misunderstandings until they were cleared
up. The adaptation of a vocabulary employed by Plato and Aristotle to Christian
truth was a matter of time; it could not be done in a day; and when accomplished
for the Greek it had to be undertaken for the Latin, which did not lend itself readily
to necessary yet subtle distinctions. That disputes should spring up even among the
orthodox who all held one faith, was inevitable. And of these wranglings the
rationalist would take advantage in order to substitute for the ancient creed his own
inventions. The drift of all he advanced was this: to deny that in any true sense God
could have a Son; as Mohammed tersely said afterwards, "God neither begets, nor
is He begotten" (Koran, cxii). We have learned to call that denial Unitarianism. It
was the ultimate scope of Arian opposition to what Christians had always believed.
But the Arian, though he did not come straight down from the Gnostic, pursued a
line of argument and taught a view which the speculations of the Gnostic had made
familiar. He described the Son as a second, or inferior God, standing midway
between the First Cause and creatures; as Himself made out of nothing, yet as
making all things else; as existing before the worlds of the ages; and as arrayed in all
divine perfections except the one which was their stay and foundation. God alone
was without beginning, unoriginate; the Son was originated, and once had not
existed. For all that has origin must begin to be.

Such is the genuine doctrine of Arius. Using Greek terms, it denies that the Son is
of one essence, nature, or substance with God; He is not consubstantial
(homoousios) with the Father, and therefore not like Him, or equal in dignity, or
co-eternal, or within the real sphere of Deity. The Logos which St. John exalts is an
attribute, Reason, belonging to the Divine nature, not a person distinct from
another, and therefore is a Son merely in figure of speech. These consequences
follow upon the principle which Arius maintains in his letter to Eusebius of
Nicomedia, that the Son "is no part of the Ingenerate." Hence the Arian sectaries
who reasoned logically were styled Anomoeans: they said that the Son was "unlike"
the Father. And they defined God as simply the Unoriginate. They are also termed
the Exucontians (ex ouk onton), because they held the creation of the Son to be out
of nothing.

But a view so unlike tradition found little favour; it required softening or palliation,
even at the cost of logic; and the school which supplanted Arianism form an early
date affirmed the likeness, either without adjunct, or in all things, or in substance,
of the Son to the Father, while denying His co-equal dignity and co-eternal
existence. These men of the Via Media were named Semi-Arians. They
approached, in strict argument, to the heretical extreme; but many of them held the
orthodox faith, however inconsistently; their difficulties turned upon language or
local prejudice, and no small number submitted at length to Catholic teaching. The
Semi-Arians attempted for years to invent a compromise between irreconcilable
views, and their shifting creeds, tumultuous councils, and worldly devices tell us
how mixed and motley a crowd was collected under their banner. The point to be
kept in remembrance is that, while they affirmed the Word of God to be
everlasting, they imagined Him as having become the Son to create the worlds and
redeem mankind. Among the ante-Nicene writers, a certain ambiguity of expression
may be detected, outside the school of Alexandria, touching this last head of
doctrine. While Catholic teachers held the Monarchia, viz. that there was only one
God; and the Trinity, that this Absolute One existed in three distinct subsistences;
and the Circuminession, that Father, Word, and Spirit could not be separated, in
fact or in thought, from one another; yet an opening was left for discussion as
regarded the term "Son," and the period of His "generation" (gennesis). Five
ante-Nicene Fathers are especially quoted: Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilus of
Antioch, Hippolytus, and Novatian, whose language appears to involve a peculiar
notion of Sonship, as though It did not come into being or were not perfect until the
dawn of creation. To these may be added Tertullian and Methodius. Cardinal
Newman held that their view, which is found clearly in Tertullian, of the Son
existing after the Word, is connected as an antecedent with Arianism. Petavius
construed the same expressions in a reprehensible sense; but the Anglican Bishop
Bull defended them as orthodox, not without difficulty. Even if metaphorical, such
language might give shelter to unfair disputants; but we are not answerable for the
slips of teachers who failed to perceive all the consequences of doctrinal truths
really held by them. >From these doubtful theorizings Rome and Alexandria kept
aloof. Origen himself, whose unadvised speculations were charged with the guilt of
Arianism, and who employed terms like "the second God," concerning the Logos,
which were never adopted by the Church - this very Origen taught the eternal
Sonship of the Word, and was not a Semi-Arian. To him the Logos, the Son, and
Jesus of Nazareth were one ever-subsisting Divine Person, begotten of the Father,
and, in this way, "subordinate" to the source of His being. He comes forth from
God as the creative Word, and so is a ministering Agent, or, from a different point
of view, is the First-born of creation. Dionysius of Alexandria (260) was even
denounced at Rome for calling the Son a work or creature of God; but he explained
himself to the pope on orthodox principles, and confessed the Homoousian Creed.

HISTORY

Paul of Samosata, who was contemporary with Dionysius, and Bishop of Antioch,
may be judged the true ancestor of those heresies which relegated Christ beyond
the Divine sphere, whatever epithets of deity they allowed Him. The man Jesus,
said Paul, was distinct from the Logos, and, in Milton's later language, by merit was
made the Son of God. The Supreme is one in Person as in Essence. Three councils
held at Antioch (264-268, or 269) condemned and excommunicated the
Samosatene. But these Fathers would not accept the Homoousian formula,
dreading lest it be taken to signify one material or abstract substance, according to
the usage of the heathen philosophies. Associated with Paul, and for years cut off
from the Catholic communion, we find the well-known Lucian, who edited the
Septuagint and became at last a martyr. From this learned man the school of
Antioch drew its inspiration. Eusebius the historian, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and
Arius himself, all came under Lucian's influence. Not, therefore, to Egypt and its
mystical teaching, but to Syria, where Aristotle flourished with his logic and its
tendency to Rationalism, should we look for the home of an aberration which had it
finally triumphed, would have anticipated Islam, reducing the Eternal Son to the
rank of a prophet, and thus undoing the Christian revelation.

Arius, a Libyan by descent, brought up at Antioch and a school-fellow of Eusebius,
afterwards Bishop of Nicomedia, took part (306) in the obscure Meletian schism,
was made presbyter of the church called "Baucalis," at Alexandria, and opposed the
Sabellians, themselves committed to a view of the Trinity which denied all real
distinctions in the Supreme. Epiphanius describes the heresiarch as tall, grave, and
winning; no aspersion on his moral character has been sustained; but there is some
possibility of personal differences having led to his quarrel with the patriarch
Alexander whom, in public synod, he accused of teaching that the Son was identical
with the Father (319). The actual circumstances of this dispute are obscure; but
Alexander condemned Arius in a great assembly, and the latter found a refuge with
Eusebius, the Church historian, at Caesarea. Political or party motives embittered
the strife. Many bishops of Asia Minor and Syria took up the defence of their
"fellow-Lucianist," as Arius did not hesitate to call himself. Synods in Palestine and
Bithynia were opposed to synods in Egypt. During several years the argument
raged; but when, by his defeat of Licinius (324), Constantine became master of the
Roman world, he determined on restoring ecclesiastical order in the East, as already
in the West he had undertaken to put down the Donatists at the Council of Arles.
Arius, in a letter to the Nicomedian prelate, had boldly rejected the Catholic faith.
But Constantine, tutored by this worldly-minded man, sent from Nicomedia to
Alexander a famous letter, in which he treated the controversy as an idle dispute
about words and enlarged on the blessings of peace. The emperor, we should call
to mind, was only a catechumen, imperfectly acquainted with Greek, much more
incompetent in theology, and yet ambitious to exercise over the Catholic Church a
dominion resembling that which, as Pontifex Maximus, he wielded over the pagan
worship. From this Byzantine conception (labelled in modern terms Erastianism)
we must derive the calamities which during many hundreds of years set their mark
on the development of Christian dogma. Alexander could not give way in a matter
so vitally important. Arius and his supporters would not yield. A council was,
therefore, assembled in Nicaea, in Bithynia, which has ever been counted the first
ecumenical, and which held its sittings from the middle of June, 325. (See FIRST
COUNCIL OF NICAEA). It is commonly said that Hosius of Cordova presided.
The Pope, St. Silvester, was represented by his legates, and 318 Fathers attended,
almost all from the East. Unfortunately, the acts of the Council are not preserved.
The emperor, who was present, paid religious deference to a gathering which
displayed the authority of Christian teaching in a manner so remarkable. From the
first it was evident that Arius could not reckon upon a large number of patrons
among the bishops. Alexander was accompanied by his youthful deacon, the
ever-memorable Athanasius who engaged in discussion with the heresiarch himself,
and from that moment became the leader of the Catholics during well-nigh fifty
years. The Fathers appealed to tradition against the innovators, and were
passionately orthodox; while a letter was received from Eusebius of Nicomedia,
declaring openly that he would never allow Christ to be of one substance with God.
This avowal suggested a means of discriminating between true believers and all
those who, under that pretext, did not hold the Faith handed down. A creed was
drawn up on behalf of the Arian party by Eusebius of Caesarea in which every
term of honour and dignity, except the oneness of substance, was attributed to Our
Lord. Clearly, then, no other test save the Homoousion would prove a match for
the subtle ambiguities of language that, then as always, were eagerly adopted by
dissidents from the mind of the Church. A formula had been discovered which
would serve as a test, though not simply to be found in Scripture, yet summing up
the doctrine of St. John, St. Paul, and Christ Himself, "I and the Father are one".
Heresy, as St. Ambrose remarks, had furnished from its own scabbard a weapon to
cut off its head. The "consubstantial" was accepted, only thirteen bishops
dissenting, and these were speedily reduced to seven. Hosius drew out the conciliar
statements, to which anathemas were subjoined against those who should affirm
that the Son once did not exist, or that before He was begotten He was not, or that
He was made out of nothing, or that He was of a different substance or essence
from the Father, or was created or changeable. Every bishop made this declaration
except six, of whom four at length gave way. Eusebius of Nicomedia withdrew his
opposition to the Nicene term, but would not sign the condemnation of Arius. By
the emperor, who considered heresy as rebellion, the alternative proposed was
subscription or banishment; and, on political grounds, the Bishop of Nicomedia was
exiled not long after the council, involving Arius in his ruin. The heresiarch and his
followers underwent their sentence in Illyria. But these incidents, which might seem
to close the chapter, proved a beginning of strife, and led on to the most
complicated proceedings of which we read in the fourth century. While the plain
Arian creed was defended by few, those political prelates who sided with Eusebius
carried on a double warfare against the term "consubstantial", and its champion,
Athanasius. This greatest of the Eastern Fathers had succeeded Alexander in the
Egyptian patriarchate (326). He was not more than thirty years of age; but his
published writings, antecedent to the Council, display, in thought and precision, a
mastery of the issues involved which no Catholic teacher could surpass. His
unblemished life, considerate temper, and loyalty to his friends made him by no
means easy to attack. But the wiles of Eusebius, who in 328 recovered
Constantine's favour, were seconded by Asiatic intrigues, and a period of Arian
reaction set in. Eustathius of Antioch was deposed on a charge of Sabellianism
(331), and the Emperor sent his command that Athanasius should receive Arius
back into communion. The saint firmly declined. In 325 the heresiarch was
absolved by two councils, at Tyre and Jerusalem, the former of which deposed
Athanasius on false and shameful grounds of personal misconduct. He was
banished to Trier, and his sojourn of eighteen months in those parts cemented
Alexandria more closely to Rome and the Catholic West. Meanwhile, Constantia,
the Emperor's sister, had recommended Arius, whom she thought an injured man,
to Constantine's leniency. Her dying words affected him, and he recalled the
Lybian, extracted from him a solemn adhesion to the Nicene faith, and ordered
Alexander, Bishop of the Imperial City, to give him Communion in his own church
(336). Arius openly triumphed; but as he went about in parade, the evening before
this event was to take place, he expired from a sudden disorder, which Catholics
could not help regarding as a judgment of heaven, due to the bishop's prayers. His
death, however, did not stay the plague. Constantine now favoured none but
Arians; he was baptized in his last moments by the shifty prelate of Nicomedia; and
he bequeathed to his three sons (337) an empire torn by dissensions which his
ignorance and weakness had aggravated.

Constantius, who nominally governed the East, was himself the puppet of his
empress and the palace-ministers. He obeyed the Eusebian faction; his spiritual
director, Valens, Bishop of Mursa, did what in him lay to infect Italy and the West
with Arian dogmas. The term "like in substance", Homoiousion, which had been
employed merely to get rid of the Nicene formula, became a watchword. But as
many as fourteen councils, held between 341 and 360, in which every shade of
heretical subterfuge found expression, bore decisive witness to the need and
efficacy of the Catholic touchstone which they all rejected. About 340, an
Alexandrian gathering had defended its archbishop in an epistle to Pope Julius. On
the death of Constantine, and by the influence of that emperor's son and namesake,
he had been restored to his people. But the young prince passed away, and in 341
the celebrated Antiochene Council of the Dedication a second time degraded
Athanasius, who now took refuge in Rome. There he spent three years. Gibbon
quotes and adopts "a judicious observation" of Wetstein which deserves to be kept
always in mind. From the fourth century onwards, remarks the German scholar,
when the Eastern Churches were almost equally divided in eloquence and ability
between contending sections, that party which sought to overcome made its
appearance in the Vatican, cultivated the Papal majesty, conquered and established
the orthodox creed by the help of the Latin bishops. Therefore it was that
Athanasius repaired to Rome. A stranger, Gregory, usurped his place. The Roman
Council proclaimed his innocence. In 343, Constans, who ruled over the West from
Illyria to Britain, summoned the bishops to meet at Sardica in Pannonia.
Ninety-four Latin, seventy Greek or Eastern, prelates began the debates; but they
could not come to terms, and the Asiatics withdrew, holding a separate and hostile
session at Philippopolis in Thrace. It has been justly said that the Council of Sardica
reveals the first symptoms of discord which, later on, produced the unhappy schism
of East and West. But to the Latins this meeting, which allowed of appeals to Pope
Julius, or the Roman Church, seemed an epilogue which completed the Nicene
legislation, and to this effect it was quoted by Innocent I in his correspondence with
the bishops of Africa.

Having won over Constans, who warmly took up his cause, the invincible
Athanasius received from his Oriental and Semi-Arian sovereign three letters
commanding, and at length entreating his return to Alexandria (349). The factious
bishops, Ursacius and Valens, retracted their charges against him in the hands of
Pope Julius; and as he travelled home, by way of Thrace, Asia Minor, and Syria,
the crowd of court-prelates did him abject homage. These men veered with every
wind. Some, like Eusebius of Caesarea, held a Platonizing doctrine which they
would not give up, though they declined the Arian blasphemies. But many were
time-servers, indifferent to dogma. And a new party had arisen, the strict and pious
Homoiousians, not friends of Athanasius, nor willing to subscribe to the Nicene
terms, yet slowly drawing nearer to the true creed and finally accepting it. In the
councils which now follow these good men play their part. However, when
Constans died (350), and his Semi-Arian brother was left supreme, the persecution
of Athanasius redoubled in violence. By a series of intrigues the Western bishops
were persuaded to cast him off at Arles, Milan, Ariminum. It was concerning this
last council (359) that St. Jerome wrote, "the whole world groaned and marvelled
to find itself Arian". For the Latin bishops were driven by threats and chicanery to
sign concessions which at no time represented their genuine views. Councils were
so frequent that their dates are still matter of controversy. Personal issues disguised
the dogmatic importance of a struggle which had gone on for thirty years. The
Pope of the day, Liberius, brave at first, undoubtedly orthodox, but torn from his
see and banished to the dreary solitude of Thrace, signed a creed, in tone
Semi-Arian (compiled chiefly from one of Sirmium), renounced Athanasius, but
made a stand against the so-called "Homoean" formulae of Ariminum. This new
party was led by Acacius of Caesarea, an aspiring churchman who maintained that
he, and not St. Cyril of Jerusalem, was metropolitan over Palestine. The
Homoeans, a sort of Protestants, would have no terms employed which were not
found in Scripture, and thus evaded signing the "Consubstantial". A more extreme
set, the "Anomoeans", followed Aetius, were directed by Eunomius, held meetings
at Antioch and Sirmium, declared the Son to be "unlike" the Father, and made
themselves powerful in the last years of Constantius within the palace. George of
Cappadocia persecuted the Alexandrian Catholics. Athanasius retired into the desert
among the solitaries. Hosius had been compelled by torture to subscribe a
fashionable creed. When the vacillating Emperor died (361), Julian, known as the
Apostate, suffered all alike to return home who had been exiled on account of
religion. A momentous gathering, over which Athanasius presided, in 362, at
Alexandria, united the orthodox Semi-Arians with himself and the West. Four years
afterwards fifty-nine Macedonian, i.e., hitherto anti-Nicene, prelates gave in their
submission to Pope Liberius. But the Emperor Valens, a fierce heretic, still laid the
Church waste.

However, the long battle was now turning decidedly in favour of Catholic tradition.
Western bishops, like Hilary of Poitiers and Eusebius of Vercellae banished to Asia
for holding the Nicene faith, were acting in unison with St. Basil, the two St.
Gregories, and the reconciled Semi-Arians. As an intellectual movement the heresy
had spent its force. Theodosius, a Spaniard and a Catholic, governed the whole
Empire. Athanasius died in 373; but his cause triumphed at Constantinople, long an
Arian city, first by the preaching of St. Gregory Nazianzen, then in the Second
General Council (381), at the opening of which Meletius of Antioch presided. This
saintly man had been estranged from the Nicene champions during a long schism;
but he made peace with Athanasius, and now, in company of St. Cyril of
Jerusalem, represented a moderate influence which won the day. No deputies
appeared from the West. Meletius died almost immediately. St. Gregory Nazianzen
(q. v.), who took his place, very soon resigned. A creed embodying the Nicene was
drawn up by St. Gregory of Nyssa, but it is not the one that is chanted at Mass, the
latter being due, it is said, to St. Epiphanius and the Church of Jerusalem. The
Council became ecumenical by acceptance of the Pope and the ever-orthodox
Westerns. From this moment Arianism in all its forms lost its place within the
Empire. Its developments among the barbarians were political rather than doctrinal.
Ulphilas (311-388), who translated the Scriptures into Maeso-Gothic, taught the
Goths across the Danube an Homoean theology; Arian kingdoms arose in Spain,
Africa, Italy. The Gepidae, Heruli, Vandals, Alans, and Lombards received a
system which they were as little capable of understanding as they were of
defending, and the Catholic bishops, the monks, the sword of Clovis, the action of
the Papacy, made an end of it before the eighth century. In the form which it took
under Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea, and Eunomius, it has never been revived.
Individuals, among them are Milton and Sir Isasc Newton, were perhaps tainted
with it. But the Socinian tendency out of which Unitarian doctrines have grown
owes nothing to the school of Antioch or the councils which opposed Nicaea.
Neither has any Arian leader stood forth in history with a character of heroic
proportions. In the whole story there is but one single hero - the undaunted
Athanasius - whose mind was equal to the problems, as his great spirit to the
vicissitudes, a question on which the future of Christianity depended.